DRAMA

What is Drama?

The word drama comes from the Greek word dran which means to act or to perform (Meyer, 1993). Many scholars trace the origin of drama to wordless actions like ritual dances and mimes performed by dancers, masked players or priests during traditional festivals or ceremonies. One account traces the origin to ritual. Drama usually begin by describing the time and place of action and giving information about the opening scene. The names of the characters are included here as are the sounds and sights that the audience will experience when the curtain rises (Chin, et al, 2001). From this concept, the key words here are time, setting and at rise. Drama is a form of literature that asks you, the reader, to play many roles (Kinsella, et al, 2003). This definition is indeed lacking some important concepts like performance, setting and actors, thus it is unsatisfactory to become a definition of drama. Applebee, et al, (2001) defined drama as a story that is intended to be performed for an audience, either on stage or before a camera.
Stage direction, plot, characters and dialogue are the elements of drama. This means that drama is a story that should be performed before the audience or a camera. For it to be effectively performed by actors, stage and the audience are important. Meyer, (1993) defined drama as a story written to be performed by actors on a stage before an audience. From his definition, the key concept is that for a drama to be effective, it needs; a story, performance, actors, stage and the audience. Glowka, (2001) defined drama as a story written to be performed by actors. He further added that although drama is meant to be performed one can read the script or written version and imagine the action. The script of a drama is made up of dialogue and stage direction. Iwuchukwu, (2008) defined drama as an adaptation, recreation and reflection of reality on stage. Drama is different from other genres of literature. It has unique characteristics that have come about in response to its peculiar nature. It is difficult to separate drama from performance because during the stage performance of a play, drama brings life experiences realistically to the audience. From these concepts we, therefore, conclude by defining drama as the artistic live performance demonstrated by actors on the dramatic stage before the audience for a particular purpose. It is an artistic action that is deliberately demonstrated as an art form in order to attain the beautiful effect.

TYPES OF DRAMA

Different scholars have categorized drama into several kinds/types. Mobley (1996) categorized drama into four types, namely; tragedy, melodrama, comedy and farce. He further emphasized that each type has subgenre because of differences among time periods and production style. Meanwhile Iwuchukwu (2008) classified drama into four types which include; tragedy, comedy, tragic-comedy and melodrama. Apart from that Cheever (2015) divided drama into five types, namely; comedy, Tragedy, farce, melodrama and musical drama. Musical drama is an additional one from those given by Mobley. Not only that but also Bukagile, et al, (2008) have presented five types of drama which are; tragedy, comedy, tragic comedy, melodrama and historical drama. Here historical drama is not mentioned by Mobley, Iwuchukwu and Cheever. From those types given by the above scholars, we can conclude by categorizing drama into main six types which include tragedy drama, comedy drama, melodrama, farce drama, tragic comedy and historical drama.

Tragedy

Tragedy is a serious play that ends unhappily (Mobley, 1996). This means that tragedy drama have bad or sad endings like death and the likes. Cheever, (2015) defined tragedy drama as a types of drama which involves serious subject matter and the death of one or more main characters. Tragedy is a drama which shows serious action and always a hero leads into danger (Meyer, 1993). Tragedy is a serious play that deals with the misfortunes of man. It presents a man (tragic hero) who is not too virtuous or too vicious but one who aspires for higher ideals. He tries to improve himself and the world around him (Iwuchukwu, 2008). Therefore, tragedy is a type of drama with

serious, sometimes impressive or elevated style, in which things go wrong and cannot be set right except at great cost or sacrifice. It is characterized by a tragic hero who is attempted to face some difficulties especially when he wants to make decisions over a certain burning issue.

Melodrama

Melodrama is a drama that relies heavily on sensations and sentimentality. The characters are clearly heroes with no blued lines or mixed motives. It includes stock characters (Mobley, 1996). Melodrama is a play that has serious action caused by a villain and a destruction of the villain which brings about a happy resolution in the play. The hero is usually involved in very dangerous circumstances but is rescued or he disentangles himself at the last possible moment (Iwuchukwu, 2008). Melodrama is a drama which represents confrontation between good and devil and in which in turn the good normally wins over the devil. Its main purpose is to make people behave well. It is a play in which the characters are types rather than individuals, the story and situations exaggerated to the point of improbability or sensationalism and the language and emotion over-emphasized.

Comedy

Comedy is a play with a happy bending (Mobley, 1996). Comedy refers to the plays that are light in tone and that typically have happy endings. Its intent is to make the audience laugh (Cheever, 2015). Comedy is a story that ends with happy resolution of the conflicts faced by the main character or characters (Probst, et al, 2000). Not only that but also Glowka, (2001) defined comedy as a play which is light, often humorous or satirical and ends happily. He then came up with two types of comedy namely; romantic comedy and comedy of manner. All these scholars share the same concept that comedy is a drama which ends happily. From these concepts the term comedy refers to the light play or drama with a happy ending. It is a type of drama or play written in a kindly or humorous, perhaps bitter or satiric vein, in which the problems or difficulties of the characters are resolved satisfactorily, regarding the point of view of the audience. Low characters as opposed to noble; characters not always changed by the action of the play; based upon observation of life. Comedy is characterized by comic actions, comic relief, satire and laughter.

Farce

Farce is an extreme form of comedy that depends on quick tempo and flawless timing by the actors (Mobley, 1996). Farce is a type of comedy in which ridiculous and often stereotyped characters are involved in silly, far-fetched situation (Probst, et al, 2000).Farce is a comedy in which story, character, and especially situations are exaggerated to the point of improbability; the situation begins with a highly improbable premise, but when that is accepted everything that follows is completely logical. Fast moving; uses such theatrical devices as duplications, repetitions, surprises, disguises, chance encounters, often many doors and closets.

Tragic-comedy

Tragic comedy is a kind of drama which combines elements of tragedy and comedy but the hero does not end in death or danger (Bukagile, et al, (2008). Tragic comedy is a kind of drama which combines elements of tragedy and comedy (Meyer, 1993). Tragic-comedy is a play that mixes both comic and tragic elements in equal proportion of each. It therefore elicits both tragic and comic emotions (Iwuchukwu, 2008).

Historical drama

Historical drama is a kind of drama which expresses the history of a certain society, but the reader will always find some elements of tragedy and comedy (Bukagile, et al, (2008).

FUNCTIONS OF DRAMA

Drama is among literary genres in which what it conveys is the reflection of life in political, social, economic and cultural aspects. It expresses the people's feelings, emotions and attitudes in relation to their environments and even the relationships among themselves and the world. The drama of any society, usually, reflects the problems, aspirations, philosophy and cultural background of the people. Here are the functions of drama in the respective society concern.

Drama is used to entertain people; Drama forms part of the communal rites, in Africa, reenactment of some feats like hunting, warfare, and other events, are usually parts of bigger festivals. Some of these events are presented in form of drama to entertain the audience. Also campaigns against Aids, drug abuse, child abuse and so on, are presented in form of drama aimed at educating and at the same time entertaining the people (Iwuchukwu, 2008).Drama is used for entertainment purpose (Conklin and Mccable, 1989). Usually, through reading, listening and watching the dramatic acts people get pleasure and enjoyment. For example, in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, Ngugi has shown this through the Fruitseller when she advertises her orange as in;

... Tamu-uuuuuu!UkimezachozilajimwagaThandaraita-iThandaraita-aaaaaaaaOn your way to heavenYou gonna get an orange. (Pg.30)

From such advertisement, the use of the phrases like “tamu-uuuuuu” and “ukimeza chozi lajimwaga” attracts and entertains the readers.

Drama is used to inform and educate people; it is the most effective tool for mass mobilization by the government and private agencies. For instance, most campaigns against Aids, drug abuse, child abuse and soon, are presented in form of drama to educate and enlighten the people (Iwuchukwu, 2008). Drama can sometimes teach about the value of knowledge and our personal responsibility in pursuing it (Conklin and Mccable, 1989). For instance, Ngugi in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, he has shown this through his character, a Woman, as in; 

“Sit down and eat slowly. Nobody is going to steal it from you. If I were your mother, I would have you washed your filthy hands thoroughly, mend your clothes, wash them and teach you how to eat properly.”(Pg.18). 

Here a Woman is educating a Boy the eating etiquette, that before starting eating one need to wash his/her hands properly and then during eating he/she need to sit down and eat slowly. The woman also is educating the boy the important of washing and mending clothes. Thus drama educates people in the society. Also in the Antigone, Sophocles has portrayed that drama educates people especially through the characters like Haimon, the son of Kreon and Theiresias, an old and blind woman. This can be seen scene 5 when Haimon tells his father that he thinks that he knows everything and the most wiser than ever since he is the king, as in;

… You are not in the position to know everything,That people say or do, or what they feel:Your temper terrifies everyoneWill tell you only what you like to hear.But I, at any rate, can listen: and Ihave heard themMuttering and whispering in the dark about this girl.They say no woman has ever, so unreasonable,Died so shameful a death for generous act:She covered her brother’s body. Is this indecent?She kept him from dogs and vulture. Is this a crime?Death? She should have all the honor that we can give her!

Here, Haimon informs his father, Kreon, that his judgment and decision he has taken towards Antigone is incorrect, hence, he is supposed to get an advice from others than depending on his own mind.

Drama mirrors the society and to effect social reforms; playwrights usually are influenced by their socio-cultural backgrounds. They draw their themes or subject matters from myths, legends, history or contemporary issues. Of all the creative artists, the dramatist is in the best position to mirror his society and to effect social reforms. This is because his work has a unique characteristic of presenting events in a vivid, picturesque and realistic manner. This helps to imprint social conditions realistically in the minds of the audience. Its message is therefore immediate (Iwuchukwu, 2008). The rich and the poor, the young and the old, the literate and the illiterate enjoy and assimilate the message of drama once it is presented in the appropriate language as the actors live out the story on stage. Drama reveals the evils or problems that are happening in a particular society. For example, in the Antigone, Sophocles has depicted this in scene 5 through the conversation between Kreon and Teiresias, as when Teiresias says;

… I tell you, Kreon, you yourself have broughtThis new calamity upon us. Our hearths and altarsAre stained with the corruption of gods and carrion birds…

Here, the author intends to reveals the source of all problems facing a respective society in a dramatic form.

It shapes the future of the society. Dramatists can use their works to help to shape the future ofthe societies. They can do this not only by reflecting the ugly sides of the societies but also by promoting the positive aspects of the people's way of life that are worth emulating or cultivating (Iwuchukwu, 2008). Drama points out the weaknesses and strengths that exist in the society concern by emphasizing the society to eliminate those weaknesses and bad things prevailing within it and encouraging that society to preserve those strengths and good things. For instance, in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, Ngugi has disclosed that during colonialism the Kenyans were maltreated as they were completely oppressed, exploited, alienated and humiliated. Thus for them to freed themselves they had unite and drive away their enemies. This can be verified through the conversation between Kimathi and Henderson (colonialist) especially when Kimathi says;

Life. My life. Give up my life for your life.Who are you, imperialist cannibal, to guarantee my life?My life is our peopleStrugglingFightingNot like you to maintainSlaveryOppressionExploitationButTo end slavery, exploitation, modern cannibalism. Out. Rat.Go back to your masters and tell them:Kimathi will not sell Kenya to the British… (pg. 35-36)

Here drama has played a role pointing out the problems which faced the Kenyans and in turn it has suggested ways of eliminating them so that it would have better future life.

Drama strengthens imaginations in people‟s mind. Actors always know really that they are not real characters in the drama/play but through imagination they act as if they are characters. Through such imaginations, the audiences are able to believe in characters and situations (Tanner, 1987). Drama arouses and dispels certain emotions (Abel, 1999:531). Drama as a work of art employs creative language in a form of conversation that in turn evokes an emotional response in the mind of reader‟s. In creating effective imaginations, feelings and attitudes, authors use sensory details or descriptions that appeal to one or more of the five senses namely; sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell. This is seen in Sophocles‟ Antigone for instance when Antigone talks with Ismene about the death of their brotherin the first part, Prologue‟ as in;

... But I will bury him; and if I must die,I say that this crime is holy: I shall lie downWith him in death, and I shall be as dearTo him as to meIt is the dead,Not the living, who make the longest demandsWe die for ever….

Here such quotation is indeed arouses and even creates an image in the mind of the reader's to the extent of becoming coward less in doing things and in that case it creates confidence to the people‟s mind. Also in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, Ngugi has shown this through his character a Boy when he encounters the death of his father to the Woman as in; 

... Father and I went to Nairobi. He found a job with a firm of timber merchants. A tiny room, a tiny salary. … His ambition was to earn enough to come back to Nyeri and buy a piece of land. But he never made it. The machine cut off his right hand … and … He died of bleeding. No medical care from his employers. I was thrown out of the room he had rented. (Pg.18-19). 

This narration makes a reader to create an image or pictures on how the room and salary were and even the way the settlers maltreated black Africans.

It expresses and maintains the culture of the society. Drama helps to ensure the continuity of the people‟s traditions and culture. Each dramatist, therefore, tries from his perspective to use his art to enlighten his audience on the goodness, imbalances and shortcomings of his society. Apart from their thematic concerns, each dramatist, in his own style of relaying his message, tries to highlight his cultural background through the use of myths, legends, music, songs, dances, proverbs, riddles, and other local expressions (Iwuchukwu, 2008). In this way, dramatists all over the world are regarded as the conscience of their societies, and custodians of their moral and cultural values. Drama prevail the culture of a particular society in which it springs from. For example, in the Antigone, Sophocles has shown this through his character Kreon, king of Thebe, when he declares his decision towards the burial of Eteocle and Polyneices as in; 

…Etoecles, who died as a man should die, fighting for his country, is to be buried with full military honors, with all the ceremony that is usual when the greatest heroes die; but his brother Polyneices, who broke his exile to come back with fire and sword against his native city and the shrines of his father’s gods, …I say is to have no burial: no man is to touch him or say the least prayer for him… (pg.112). 

Here, it shows that the concerned society has a culture of burying the people‟s corps with a burial ceremony in relation to the status of the person died. Also it shows that the burial ceremonies used to be associated with prayers to their gods. Also in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, Ngugi has shown that the Kenyans used to dance freely their traditional dances before the arrival of colonialists, but after their arrival, their traditional dances have been replaced by foreign ones as when Kimathi says; 

…It is true that I’ve always wanted to dance the dances of my people. They used to dance these before the white colonialist came. In the arena.at initiation…during funerals…during marriage… Then the colonialist came. And the people danced different dance (pg.36-37). 

This reflects that the Kenyans traditional occasions like initiations, funeral and marriage were associated with dances.

Drama liberates people mentally and physically as it creates awareness to the audiences or readers. Abel, (1999:531) stressed that drama heightens viewers‟ awareness and sense. Drama directs people towards their problems like oppression, exploitation, ignorance, poverty, just to mention few and on the other hand paves the appropriate ways of getting out of them. For example, Ngugi in I will Marry When I Want, has portrayed this through the character, Gicaamba, when he tells Kikuunda as in;

To have factories and even big industriesIs good, very good!It’s a means of developing the country.The question is this: Who owns the industry?Who benefits from the industries?Whose children gain from the industries?Remember also that it’s only the industrial tycoonsWho are like that!...  (pg.39)

Here, when a reader reads such a script, he/she becomes aware with what faced the society concern. So from this context, Ngugi aimed to awaken the readers/society that despite the fact that there were industries in their country, Kenya, they were not beneficial to them. They instead benefited only the settlers.

To sum up, drama is an imitation of life. It is different from other forms of literature because of its unique characteristics. It is read, but basically, it is composed to be performed, so the ultimate aim of dramatic composition is for it to be presented on stage before an audience. This implies that it is a medium of communication. It has an immediate message to be communicated to the audience. It uses actors to convey this message. Unlike the prose and poetry which depend on narration, drama is presented only through dialogue. The novel is divided in chapters and the poem is written mostly in stanzas, drama is presented in acts and scenes, movements or parts.

REFERENCES

Abel, L. (1999). Theatre Art in Africa, USA, National Textbook Company.

Applebee, A.N, Bermudez, A.B, Blau, S, Caplan, R, Elbow, P, Hynds, S, Langer, J.A and Marshall, J. (2001). The Language of Literature, USA, Mc Dougal Littell Inc.

Cheever, J. (2015). Different Types of Drama. http://www.live123/...es-of-drama.htlm/may.16.2015

Chin, B.A, Wolf, D., Copeland, J., Dudzinski, M.A., Ray, W., Royster, J.J. and Wilhelm, J. (2001). Glencoe Literature: The Reader‟s Choice, USA, Mc Graw-Hall.

Conklin, R & Mccable, M. (1989). Prentice Hall Literature Copper, USA, Prentice-Hall Inc.

Iwuchukwu, O. (2008). Elements of Drama, Lagos; National Open University of Nigeria.

Kinsella, K., Feldman, K., Stump, C.S., Canoll, J.A and Wilson, E.E. (2003). Prentice Hall: Literature, USA, Pearson Education Inc.

Meyer, M. (1993). The Bedford Introduction to Literature, 3rd ed., New York, Bedford Books of St. Martin‟s

Mobley, J. (1996). Play Production Today, 5th ed., USA, National Textbook Company.

Tanner, F.A. (1987). Basic Drama Project, USA, Clark Publishing Inc.

Written by Notker Mgeni & Hadinani Ungite. May, 2015

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